CHILD LABOUR,CORPORAL PUNISHMENT AND SCHOOL VIOLENCE
CHILD LABOUR
Child labour refers to the
employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood,
interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally,
physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.This practice is considered exploitative by many international
organisations. Legislation across the
world prohibit child labour. These laws do not consider all work by children as
child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties,
supervised training, certain categories of work such as those by Amish children,
some forms of child work common among indigenous American children, and others.
Child labour has existed to varying
extents, through most of history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries,
many children aged 5–14 from poorer families still worked in Europe, the United
States and various colonies of European powers. These children mainly worked in
agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining and in services
such as news
boys. Some worked night shifts
lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools
and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell.
In developing
countries, with high poverty and poor schooling opportunities, child labour is
still prevalent. In 2010, sub-saharan
Africa had
the highest incidence rates of child labour, with several African nations
witnessing over 50 percent of children aged 5–14 working.Worldwide agriculture is the largest
employer of child labour. Vast majority of child labour is found
in rural settings and informal urban economy; children are predominantly
employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of schools are
considered as the primary cause of child labour.
Child Labour is the
practice of having children engage in economic activity, on a part- or
full-time basis. The practice deprives children of their childhood, and is
harmful to their physical and mental development. Poverty, lack of good schools
and the growth of the informal economy are considered to be the key causes of
child labour in India.
Causes of child labour
Poverty and its related problems are some of the main
causes of child labour in Ethiopia. The 2001 survey reported that about 90 per
cent of the children working in productive activities replied that they were
working to either supplement family income (23.8 per cent) or to improve it
(66.0 per cent). Poverty in Ethiopia is chronic due to, among others, population
pressure, land degradation, unemployment and under-employment among adults and
school leavers (youth). Children are paid lower wages than adults, not
unionized, and do not demand workers’ rights. They are also thought by some to
be more efficient in certain types of work, though this has not been
demonstrated. Thus, these people tend to prefer child workers to adults.
The other main
cause of child labour is cultural values. The Ethiopian culture encourages
children to work to develop skills. Children are considered as assets to
generate income in time of poverty. Children should, therefore, be given work
at home early in life and be obliged to assist parents.
Other
reasons include educational problems, like distance from school, poor quality
of education, over-crowding, inability to support schooling (food, uniforms,
exercise books, school fees, etc.); family disintegration due to divorce;
various conflicts, war and civil strife; drought and resettlement; orphanhood
due to AIDS; and rapid urbanization.
Consequences of
child labour
Children are
exposed to accidental and other injuries at work. They should thus be protected
to prevent social, economic and physical harm, which persist to affect them
during their lifetime. Such injuries include.
- General
child injuries and abuses like cuts, burns and lacerations, fractures,
tiredness and dizziness, excessive fears and nightmares.
- Sexual
abuse, particularly sexual exploitation of girls by adults, rape,
prostitution, early and unwanted pregnancy, abortion, Sexually Transmitted
Diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS, drugs and alcoholism.
- Physical
abuse that involve corporal punishment, emotional maltreatment such as
blaming, belittling, verbal attacks, rejection, humiliation and bad
remarks.
- Emotional
neglect such as deprivation of family love and affection, resulting in
loneliness, and hopelessness.
- Physical
neglect like lack of adequate provision of food, clothing, shelter and
medical treatment.
- Lack
of schooling results in missing educational qualifications and higher
skills thus perpetuating their life in poverty.
- Competition
of children with adult workers leads to depressing wages and salaries.
Apart from the above, lack of opportunity for higher education
for older children deprives the nation of developing higher skills and
technological capabilities that are required for economic
development/transformation to attain higher income and better standards of
living.
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
Corporal punishment or physical
punishment (physical discipline in some contexts) is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is usually inflicted in settings with a
substantial disparity of power between the partakers.
Corporal
punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, usually employing
more modest forms. Common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling.
It is however
also used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most
cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of
imprisonment or slavery. Frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well.
Causes
§ Adults do not know the effects of such punishment.
§ Parents often do not know any alternate ways of disciplining their children,
so they use psychological or physical punishment.
§ When parents are alcoholic.
§ When adults are unhappy and depressed.
§ When adults do not know how to manage their anger.
§ The children and their families are poor.
§ When there is a broken family or multiple marriages.
§ Ignorance and lack of education.
§ When there is family conflict.
§ To maintain order and discipline.
§ There are no strict laws to prevent it.
§ Cycle of punishment and abuse of power – people who were punished when
they were children, tend to punish others when they grow up.
Effects
of Corporal Punishment on Children
Corporal punishment is used sparely
today as far as the average person can see. With many laws out their protecting
unfair and hurtful treatment of others, it’s easily to forget that most
children overwhelmingly receive this questionable form of correction. When you
think corporal punishment your mind probably jumps to the extreme foams of it,
such as, serve whipping, hangings of the old days, and ancient tortures.
Corporal punishment isn’t always that elaborate but no matter the level; it is
still hurtful producing long term effects that are not always good.
Modern corporal punishment is mainly reserved for children. Most adults do not experience this form of correction as it is seen as harassment and abuse when applied to an adult. If an adult getting spanked is considered harassment, why is it acceptable for a child to be spanked? To understand this double standard we must look at the society we live in, in this case the United States of America.
Our country was built on very liberal and defiant terms. Our whole society originated from groups of rebels and people wishing to break free from English society. Our history is a bloody one, with most of our independence due to wars, fighting and spilling blood. America in general, saw forcefulness and violence as a means to accomplish our goals. The society accepted this method because it did accomplish our goals. At the time of America’s formation we didn’t have much of a choice of how we did things. Today in the modern world our views on conducting and accomplishing goals has changed greatly but still we hold on to some methods of the old days.
Modern corporal punishment is mainly reserved for children. Most adults do not experience this form of correction as it is seen as harassment and abuse when applied to an adult. If an adult getting spanked is considered harassment, why is it acceptable for a child to be spanked? To understand this double standard we must look at the society we live in, in this case the United States of America.
Our country was built on very liberal and defiant terms. Our whole society originated from groups of rebels and people wishing to break free from English society. Our history is a bloody one, with most of our independence due to wars, fighting and spilling blood. America in general, saw forcefulness and violence as a means to accomplish our goals. The society accepted this method because it did accomplish our goals. At the time of America’s formation we didn’t have much of a choice of how we did things. Today in the modern world our views on conducting and accomplishing goals has changed greatly but still we hold on to some methods of the old days.
Preventing Corporal Punishment
1.
Learn anger management techniques
2.
Set clear rules in advance
3.
Use positive reinforcement
4.
Apply logical consequences
5.
Attend family counseling
6.
Apologize for your actions
7.
Ask for a different punishment.
SCHOOL VIOLENCE
School violence is widely held to have become a serious problem
in recent decades in many countries, especially where weapons such as guns or
knives are involved. It includes violence between school students as
well as physical attacks by students on school staff.
Risk factors
Internalizing and externalizing behaviors
A
distinction is made between internalizing and externalizing behavior.
Internalizing behaviors reflect withdrawal, inhibition, anxiety, and/or
depression. Internalizing behavior has been found in some cases of youth
violence although in some youth, depression is associated with substance abuse.
Because they rarely act out, students with internalizing problems are often
overlooked by school personnel.Externalizing behaviors refer to
delinquent activities, aggression, and hyperactivity. Unlike internalizing
behaviors, externalizing behaviors include, or are directly linked to, violent
episodes. Violent behaviors such as punching and kicking are often learned from
observing others. Just as externalizing behaviors are
observed outside of school, such behaviors also observed in schools.
Other
individual factors
A number of
other individual factors are associated with higher levels of aggressiveness.
Compared to children whose antisocial conduct begins in adolescence, early
starters have a worse prognosis in terms of future aggression and other
antisocial activities. Lower IQ is related to higher levels of
aggression. Other findings indicate that in boys
early problematic motor skills, attentional difficulties, and reading problems
predict later persistent antisocial conduct.
Home
environment
The home environment is thought to
contribute to school violence. The Constitutional Rights Foundation suggests
long-term exposure to gun violence, parental alcoholism, domestic violence, physical abuse of the child, and child
sexual abuse teaches children that criminal and violent activities are
acceptable. Harsh parental discipline is associated
with higher levels of aggressiveness in youth.There is some evidence indicating that
exposure to television violence and, to a lesser extent, violent video
games is related to increased aggressiveness
in children, which, in turn, may carry over into school.
Neighbourhood
environment
Neighbourhoods and communities provide
the context for school violence. Communities with high rates of crime and drug
use teach youth the violent behaviors that are carried into schools.Dilapidated housing in the neighbourhood
of the school has been found to be associated with school violence.Teacher assault was more likely to occur
in schools located in high-crime neighbourhoods. Exposure to deviant peers is a risk
factor for high levels of aggressivity.Research has shown that poverty and high population densities are
associated with higher rates of school violence. Well controlled longitudinal
research indicates
that children's exposure to community violence during the early elementary
school years increases the risk of aggression later in elementary school, as
reported by teachers and classmates. Other, well controlled longitudinal
research that utilized propensity
score matching indicates that exposure to gun violence in early adolescence is
related to the initiation of serious physical violence in later adolescence. Neighbourhood gangs are thought to
contribute to dangerous school environments. Gangs use the social environment
of the school to recruit members and interact with opposing groups, with gang
violence carrying over from neighbourhoods into some schools.
School
environment
Recent research
has linked the school environment to school violence. Teacher assaults are associated with a
higher percentage male faculty, a higher proportion of male students, and a
higher proportion of students receiving free or reduced cost lunch (an
indicator of poverty). In general, a large male population,
higher grade levels, a history of high levels of disciplinary problems in the
school, high student to teacher ratios, and an urban location are
related to violence in schools.In students, academic performance is
inversely related to antisocial conduct. The research by Hirschiand others,cited above in the section on the home
environment, is also consistent with the view that lack of attachment to school
is associated with increased risk of antisocial conduct.
causes
1.
Weapons- weapons are something that are easily available in this era to
the children and can be accessed by the children in an illegal way. They do
purchase such weapons and try to utilize them in the school to get fame and
name.
2.
Atmosphere in the home- if a kid is deprived of a good environment at
his home place, then there are great chances of him becoming violent. If they
see that their parents keep on fighting continuously for no reason, beat each
other, then they develop similar attitudes in mind and learn the same.
3.
Anxiety and stress- there are possibilities that an individual may get
violent due to anxiety and stress. They are many times, under continuous
stress, may be career problems, or studies or any other reason.
4.
Depression- if a kid is under depression, then also there are chances of
him getting violent and he may showcase this violence in the school.
5.
Effects of media- this is one of the biggest reason spoiling the kids on
a regular basis. A lot of violence is broadcasted in TV shows and cinemas. Kids
see such programs and try to imitate the same in their real life. They observe
violent scenes in media such as usage of guns and knives to kill the other
person and hence, try to practice it in reality.
6.
No counseling- if a child does not get proper counseling, affection and
love, then there are higher possibilities of him to become violent.
7.
Effect of the group- the child’s group plays a vital role in molding his
behavior. They generally get violent, if someone in the group has got violent.
If one of all of his friends is violent, then he learns the same and hence
expresses the same in the school.
8.
Lack of guidance or support in difficult times- each one of us go
through a difficult time in life. If, at this period, he does not receive
proper guidance or care, then the possibilities of getting violent are high.
Children cannot solve problems or take decisions on their own and this is quite
an irritating task for them.
All the above
mentioned reasons are accountable for a violent behavior in the child. Therefore,
it is the role of the teachers, parents as well as the schools to consider
these factors and take proper care of the child and serve him in times of
difficulty to avoid such problems.
Effects of School Violence
While it is
easy to speculate about what the primary causes of school violence are, the
effects of school violence are rather simple to see. One of the most damaging
effects is the frequency of school shootings across America. Unfortunately,
another visible effect is the loss of lives as a result of school violence.
Another effect of school violence is the shift that it brings to the
educational process. Teachers are forced to be on the lookout for troubled
students, rather than focusing on teaching alone. This heightened attention to
school safety is unfortunately necessary, but it indicates a shifting
perspective in American viewpoints of school. In some schools, teens may not be
able to get as much of an education because educators need to be focused on
keeping teens safe.
Another obvious effect of school
violence is that many students end up feeling fearful of other students or of
going to school. When dealing with school bullies, teens teasing one another,
and past violent incidents, teens begin to fear what will happen to them
everyday. Some parents react swiftly to these type of fears and look into
homeschooling their own children.
Prevention
and intervention
The goal of
prevention and intervention strategies is to stop school violence from
occurring. According to the CDC,
there are at least four levels at which violence-prevention programs can act:
at the level of society in general, the school community, the family, and the
individual.
·
Society-level prevention strategies aim to change social and cultural
conditions in order to reduce violence regardless of where the violence occurs.
Examples include reducing media violence, reshaping social norms,
and restructuring educational
systems. The strategies are rarely used and
difficult to implement.
·
Now Is The Time is a federal initiative developed in 2013 in
response to the growing number of gun related school violence incidents. The
initiative will provide funding and resources to schools in an effort to reduce
gun violence in schools. Funding will be provided for implementation of school
interventions and training teachers and staff, programs that will support the
mental and physical health of students, conflict resolution programs to reduce
further school violence, and restoration of school environment after a violent
incident.
·
School-wide strategies are designed to modify the school
characteristics that are associated with violence. An avenue of psychological research is the reduction of violence and
incivility, particularly the development of interventions at the level of the
school. The CDC suggests schools promote
classroom management techniques, cooperative learning, and close student
supervision. At the elementary school level, the
group behavioral intervention known as the Good Behavior Game helps reduce
classroom disruption and promotes prosocial classroom interactions. There is some evidence that the Second
Step curriculum, which is concerned with promoting impulse control and empathy
among second and third graders, produces reductions in physically aggressive
behavior.Other school-wide strategies are aimed
at reducing or eliminating bullying and organizing the local police to
better combat gang violence.
·
The implementation of school-wide
early-warning systems, the school equivalent of a DEW Line-like
surveillance operation designed to "prevent the worst cases of school
violence," has been problematic. Recent developments in early threat
assessment, however, show promise. Violence-prevention efforts can also
be usefully directed at developing anti-bullying programs, helping teachers
with classroom-management strategies, applying behavioral strategies such as
the Good Behavior Game, implementing curricular innovations such as the Second
Step syllabus, developing programs to strengthen families (see below), and
implementing programs aimed at enhancing the social and academic skills of
at-risk students (see below).
·
Teachers are the professional group who works directly where
school bullying takes place and who spends the most time with both bullies,
victims and bystanders. Thus, whether and how teachers intervene in the case of
bullying is of great importance. Research has shown that teachers prefer
authority-based interventions towards bullies but seem to neglect to support
the victims. Unfortunately, most teacher training
curricula do not include preventive and interventive skills regarding school
violence.
·
Some intervention programs are aimed at improving family relationships.There is some evidence that such
intervention strategies have modest effects on the behavior of children in the
short and long term. Patterson's home intervention program involving
mothers has been shown to reduce aggressive conduct in children. An important question concerns the
extent to which the influence of the program carries over into the child's
conduct in school.
·
Some prevention and intervention programs focus on individual-level strategies.
These programs are aimed at students who exhibit aggression and violent behaviors or are at risk
for engaging in such behaviors. Some programs include conflict resolution and
team problem-solving. Other programs teach students social
skills.the Conduct Problems Prevention
Research Group, while developing and implementing a universal anti-aggression
component for all elementary school children, also developed and implemented a
separate social-skills and academic tutoring component that targets children
who are the most at risk for engaging in aggressive behavior.
