EDUCATION OF DALITS AND TRIBES

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

PLEBIANIZATION

FINANCE ALLOCATION

NEURO LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING

STEPHEN KRASHEN

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

DIGITAL  LIBRARY

   A digital library is a special library with a focused collection of digital objects that can include text, visual material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats (as opposed to print, microform, or other media), along with means for organizing, storing, and retrieving the files and media contained in the library collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by individuals, organizations, or affiliated with established physical library buildings or institutions, or with academic institutions.The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. An electronic library is a type of information retrieval system.

History

       Early projects centered on the creation of an electronic card catalogue known as Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC). By the 1980s, the success of these endeavors resulted in OPAC replacing the traditional card catalog in many academic, public and special libraries. This permitted libraries to undertake additional rewarding co-operative efforts to support resource sharing and expand access to library materials beyond an individual library.

       An early example of a digital library is the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) which was "born digital" in 1966.

Terminology

        The term digital libraries was first popularized by the NSF/DARPA/NASA Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994. These draw heavily on Vannevar Bush's essay As We May Think (1945), which set out a vision not in terms of technology, but user experience. The term virtual library was initially used interchangeably with digital library, but is now primarily used for libraries that are virtual in other senses (such as libraries which aggregate distributed content). In the early days of digital libraries, there was discussion of the similarities and differences among the terms digital, virtual, and electronic.

          In the context of the DELOS, a Network of Excellence on Digital Libraries, and DL.org, a Coordination Action on Digital Library Interoperability, Best Practices and Modelling Foundations, Digital Library researchers and practitioners and software developer produced a Digital Library Reference Model which defines a digital library as: "A potentially virtual organization, that comprehensively collects, manages and preserves for the long depth of time rich digital content, and offers to its targeted user communities specialized functionality on that content, of defined quality and according to comprehensive codified policies."

           A distinction is often made between content that was created in a digital format, known as born-digital, and information that has been converted from a physical medium, e.g. paper, through digitization. It should also be noted that not all electronic content is in digital data format. The term hybrid library is sometimes used for libraries that have both physical collections and electronic collections. For example, American Memory is a digital library within the Library of Congress.

          Some important digital libraries also serve as long term archives, such as arXiv and the Internet Archive. Others, such as the Digital Public Library of America, seek to make digital information from various institutions widely accessible online.

ERIC SOFTWARE

      The given name Eric, Erik, or Erick is derived from the Old Norse name Eiríkr (or Æinrikr in Eastern Scandinavia due to monophthongization). The first element, ei- is derived either from the older Proto-Norse aina(z) meaning "one" or "alone"or from Proto-Norse aiwa(z) meaning "ever" or "eternal". The second element -ríkr derives either from rík(a)z meaning "ruler" or "prince" (cf. Gothic reiks) or from an even older Proto-Germanic ríkiaz which meant "powerful" and "rich". The name is thus usually taken to mean "one ruler", "autocrat", "eternal ruler" or "ever powerful", "warrior", and "government".

     The most common spelling in Scandinavia is Erik. In Norway, another form of the name (which has kept the Old Norse diphthong) Eirik is also commonly used.In Finland, the form Erkki is also used. The modern Icelandic version is Eiríkur, while the modern Faroese version is Eirikur. Éric [eʁik] is used in French, and in Germany Eric, Erik and Erich are used.

       Although the name was in use in Anglo-Saxon England, its use was reinforced by Scandinavian settlers arriving before the Norman Invasion. It was an uncommon name in England until the Middle Ages, when it gained popularity, and finally became a common name in the 19th century. This was partly because of the publishing of the novel Eric, or, Little by Little by Frederick William Farrar in 1858.

In Norway, Sweden and Finland, the name day for Erik and Eirik is 18 May, commemorating the death of Saint Eric of Sweden.

The feminine derivative is Erica or Erika.

INFLIBNET

       Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) Centre is an Autonomous Inter-University Centre (IUC) of University Grants Commission (UGC) involved in creating infrastructure for sharing of library and information resources and services among Academic and Research Institutions. nformation and Library Network (INFLIBNET) Centre is an Autonomous Inter-University Centre (IUC) of University Grants Commission (UGC) involved in creating infrastructure for sharing of library and information resources and services among Academic and Research Institutions. INFLIBNET works collaboratively with Indian university libraries to shape the future of the academic libraries in the evolving information environment.

     INFLIBNET is involved in modernizing university libraries in India and connecting them as well as information centres in the country through a nation-wide high speed data network using the state-of-art technologies for the optimum utilisation of information. INFLIBNET is set out to be a major player in promoting scholarly communication among academicians and researchers in India.

GOOGLE BOOKS

             Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and Google Print) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and stored in its digital database. Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Google's library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of magazine publishers to digitize their archives.

        The Publisher Program was first known as 'Google Print' when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004. The Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004.

            The Google Books initiative has been hailed for its potential to offer unprecedented access to what may become the largest online body of human knowledge and promoting the democratization of knowledge.But it has also been criticized for potential copyright violations, and lack of editing to correct the many errors introduced into the scanned texts by the OCR process.

        As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, but the scanning process has slowed down in American academic libraries. Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them.

^{DIGITAL LIBRARY}

            A digital library is a special library with a focused collection of digital objects that can include text, visual material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats (as opposed to print, microform, or other media), along with means for organizing, storing, and retrieving the files and media contained in the library collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by individuals, organizations, or affiliated with established physical library buildings or institutions, or with academic institutions. The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. An electronic library is a type of information retrieval system.

ENCYCLOPEDIA

             An encyclopedia or encyclopaedia (also spelled encyclopædia, see spelling differences) is a type of reference work or compendium holding a comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries, which are usually accessed alphabetically by article name.Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries. Generally speaking, unlike dictionary entries which focus on linguistic information about words, encyclopedia articles focus on factual information concerning the subject for which the article is named.

Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years; the oldest still in existence, Naturalis Historia, was written starting in ca. AD 77 by Pliny the Elder and was not fully revised at the time of his death in AD 79. The modern encyclopedia evolved out of dictionaries around the 17th century. Historically, some encyclopedias were contained in one volume, whereas others, such as the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Enciclopedia Italiana (62 volumes, 56,000 pages) or the world's largest, Enciclopedia universal ilustrada europeo-americana (118 volumes, 105,000 pages), became huge multi-volume works. Some modern encyclopedias, such as Wikipedia, are electronic and often freely available.

DIGITAL DICTIONARY

                  A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by radical and stroke for ideographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, translation, etc.or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, sometimes known as a lexicon .It is a lexicographical product which shows inter-relationships among the data.

                      A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a complete range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study. In theory, general dictionaries are supposed to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms , and rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary.

            There is also a contrast between prescriptive or descriptive dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications (e.g. "informal" or "vulgar") in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive.

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Advantages

         The advantages of digital libraries as a means of easily and rapidly accessing books, archives and images of various types are now widely recognized by commercial interests and public bodies alike.

           Traditional libraries are limited by storage space; digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain it. As such, the cost of maintaining a digital library can be much lower than that of a traditional library. A physical library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and additional books. Digital libraries may reduce or, in some instances, do away with these fees. Both types of library require cataloging input to allow users to locate and retrieve material. Digital libraries may be more willing to adopt innovations in technology providing users with improvements in electronic and audio book technology as well as presenting new forms of communication such as wikis and blogs; conventional libraries may consider that providing online access to their OP AC catalog is sufficient. An important advantage to digital conversion is increased accessibility to users. They also increase availability to individuals who may not be traditional patrons of a library, due to geographic location or organizational affiliation.

·         No physical boundary. The user of a digital library need not to go to the library physically; people from all over the world can gain access to the same information, as long as an Internet connection is available.

·         Round the clock availability A major advantage of digital libraries is that people can gain access 24/7 to the information.

·         Multiple access. The same resources can be used simultaneously by a number of institutions and patrons. This may not be the case for copyrighted material: a library may have a license for "lending out" only one copy at a time; this is achieved with a system of digital rights management where a resource can become inaccessible after expiration of the lending period or after the lender chooses to make it inaccessible (equivalent to returning the resource).

·         Information retrieval. The user is able to use any search term (word, phrase, title, name, subject) to search the entire collection. Digital libraries can provide very user-friendly interfaces, giving click able access to its resources.

·         Preservation and conservation. Digitization is not a long-term preservation solution for physical collections, but does succeed in providing access copies for materials that would otherwise fall to degradation from repeated use. Digitized collections and born-digital objects pose many preservation and conservation concerns that analog materials do not. Please see the following "Problems" section of this page for examples.

·         Space. Whereas traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain them and media storage technologies are more affordable than ever before.

·         Added value. Certain characteristics of objects, primarily the quality of images, may be improved. Digitization can enhance legibility and remove visible flaws such as stains and discoloration.

·         Easily accessible.

Disadvantages

       Digital libraries, or at least their digital collections, unfortunately also have brought their own problems and challenges in areas such as:There are many large scale digitisation projects that perpetuate this problem.

·         User authentication for access to collections

·         Copyright

·         Digital preservation (see above)

·         Equity of access (see digital divide)

·         Interface design

·         Interoperability between systems and software

·         Information organization

·         Inefficient or non existent taxomomy practices (especially with historical material)

·         Training and development

·         Quality of Metadata

CHILD LABOUR,CORPORAL PUNISHMENT AND SCHOOL VIOLENCE

CHILD LABOUR

              Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.This practice is considered exploitative by many international organisations. Legislation across the world prohibit child labour. These laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, certain categories of work such as those by Amish children, some forms of child work common among indigenous American children, and others.

         Child labour has existed to varying extents, through most of history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5–14 from poorer families still worked in Europe, the United States and various colonies of European powers. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining and in services such as news boys. Some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell.

           In developing countries, with high poverty and poor schooling opportunities, child labour is still prevalent. In 2010, sub-saharan Africa had the highest incidence rates of child labour, with several African nations witnessing over 50 percent of children aged 5–14 working.Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. Vast majority of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economy; children are predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of schools are considered as the primary cause of child labour.

             Child Labour is the practice of having children engage in economic activity, on a part- or full-time basis. The practice deprives children of their childhood, and is harmful to their physical and mental development. Poverty, lack of good schools and the growth of the informal economy are considered to be the key causes of child labour in India.

Causes of child labour

              Poverty and its related problems are some of the main causes of child labour in Ethiopia. The 2001 survey reported that about 90 per cent of the children working in productive activities replied that they were working to either supplement family income (23.8 per cent) or to improve it (66.0 per cent). Poverty in Ethiopia is chronic due to, among others, population pressure, land degradation, unemployment and under-employment among adults and school leavers (youth). Children are paid lower wages than adults, not unionized, and do not demand workers’ rights. They are also thought by some to be more efficient in certain types of work, though this has not been demonstrated. Thus, these people tend to prefer child workers to adults.

           The other main cause of child labour is cultural values. The Ethiopian culture encourages children to work to develop skills. Children are considered as assets to generate income in time of poverty. Children should, therefore, be given work at home early in life and be obliged to assist parents.

                 Other reasons include educational problems, like distance from school, poor quality of education, over-crowding, inability to support schooling (food, uniforms, exercise books, school fees, etc.); family disintegration due to divorce; various conflicts, war and civil strife; drought and resettlement; orphanhood due to AIDS; and rapid urbanization.

Consequences of child labour

            Children are exposed to accidental and other injuries at work. They should thus be protected to prevent social, economic and physical harm, which persist to affect them during their lifetime. Such injuries include.

• General child injuries and abuses like cuts, burns and lacerations, fractures, tiredness and dizziness, excessive fears and nightmares.
• Sexual abuse, particularly sexual exploitation of girls by adults, rape, prostitution, early and unwanted pregnancy, abortion, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS, drugs and alcoholism.
• Physical abuse that involve corporal punishment, emotional maltreatment such as blaming, belittling, verbal attacks, rejection, humiliation and bad remarks.
• Emotional neglect such as deprivation of family love and affection, resulting in loneliness, and hopelessness.
• Physical neglect like lack of adequate provision of food, clothing, shelter and medical treatment.
• Lack of schooling results in missing educational qualifications and higher skills thus perpetuating their life in poverty.
• Competition of children with adult workers leads to depressing wages and salaries.

Apart from the above, lack of opportunity for higher education for older children deprives the nation of developing higher skills and technological capabilities that are required for economic development/transformation to attain higher income and better standards of living.

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT  

           Corporal punishment or physical punishment (physical discipline in some contexts) is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is usually inflicted in settings with a substantial disparity of power between the partakers.

          Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, usually employing more modest forms. Common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling.

           It is however also used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of imprisonment or slavery. Frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well.

 

Causes 

§  Adults do not know the effects of such punishment.

§  Parents often do not know any alternate ways of disciplining their children, so they use psychological or physical punishment.

§  When parents are alcoholic.

§  When adults are unhappy and depressed.

§  When adults do not know how to manage their anger.

§  The children and their families are poor.

§  When there is a broken family or multiple marriages.

§  Ignorance and lack of education.

§  When there is family conflict.

§  To maintain order and discipline.

§  There are no strict laws to prevent it.

§  Cycle of punishment and abuse of power – people who were punished when they were children, tend to punish others when they grow up.

Effects of Corporal Punishment on Children

            Corporal punishment is used sparely today as far as the average person can see.  With many laws out their protecting unfair and hurtful treatment of others, it’s easily to forget that most children overwhelmingly receive this questionable form of correction. When you think corporal punishment your mind probably jumps to the extreme foams of it, such as, serve whipping, hangings of the old days, and ancient tortures. Corporal punishment isn’t always that elaborate but no matter the level; it is still hurtful producing long term effects that are not always good. 

Modern corporal punishment is mainly reserved for children. Most adults do not experience this form of correction as it is seen as harassment and abuse when applied to an adult. If an adult getting spanked is considered harassment, why is it acceptable for a child to be spanked? To understand this double standard we must look at the society we live in, in this case the United States of America. 

Our country was built on very liberal and defiant terms. Our whole society originated from groups of rebels and people wishing to break free from English society. Our history is a bloody one, with most of our independence due to wars, fighting and spilling blood. America in general, saw forcefulness and violence as a means to accomplish our goals. The society accepted this method because it did accomplish our goals. At the time of America’s formation we didn’t have much of a choice of how we did things. Today in the modern world our views on conducting and accomplishing goals has changed greatly but still we hold on to some methods of the old days. 

 Preventing Corporal Punishment

1.     Learn anger management techniques

2.     Set clear rules in advance

3.     Use positive reinforcement

4.     Apply logical consequences

5.     Attend family counseling

6.     Apologize for your actions

7.     Ask for a different punishment.

SCHOOL VIOLENCE

          School violence is widely held to have become a serious problem in recent decades in many countries, especially where weapons such as guns or knives are involved. It includes violence between school students as well as physical attacks by students on school staff.

Risk factors

Internalizing and externalizing behaviors

              A distinction is made between internalizing and externalizing behavior. Internalizing behaviors reflect withdrawal, inhibition, anxiety, and/or depression. Internalizing behavior has been found in some cases of youth violence although in some youth, depression is associated with substance abuse. Because they rarely act out, students with internalizing problems are often overlooked by school personnel.Externalizing behaviors refer to delinquent activities, aggression, and hyperactivity. Unlike internalizing behaviors, externalizing behaviors include, or are directly linked to, violent episodes. Violent behaviors such as punching and kicking are often learned from observing others. Just as externalizing behaviors are observed outside of school, such behaviors also observed in schools.

Other individual factors

             A number of other individual factors are associated with higher levels of aggressiveness. Compared to children whose antisocial conduct begins in adolescence, early starters have a worse prognosis in terms of future aggression and other antisocial activities. Lower IQ is related to higher levels of aggression. Other findings indicate that in boys early problematic motor skills, attentional difficulties, and reading problems predict later persistent antisocial conduct.

Home environment

            The home environment is thought to contribute to school violence. The Constitutional Rights Foundation suggests long-term exposure to gun violence, parental alcoholism, domestic violence, physical abuse of the child, and child sexual abuse teaches children that criminal and violent activities are acceptable. Harsh parental discipline is associated with higher levels of aggressiveness in youth.There is some evidence indicating that exposure to television violence and, to a lesser extent, violent video games is related to increased aggressiveness in children, which, in turn, may carry over into school.

Neighbourhood environment

            Neighbourhoods and communities provide the context for school violence. Communities with high rates of crime and drug use teach youth the violent behaviors that are carried into schools.Dilapidated housing in the neighbourhood of the school has been found to be associated with school violence.Teacher assault was more likely to occur in schools located in high-crime neighbourhoods. Exposure to deviant peers is a risk factor for high levels of aggressivity.Research has shown that poverty and high population densities are associated with higher rates of school violence. Well controlled longitudinal research indicates that children's exposure to community violence during the early elementary school years increases the risk of aggression later in elementary school, as reported by teachers and classmates. Other, well controlled longitudinal research that utilized propensity score matching indicates that exposure to gun violence in early adolescence is related to the initiation of serious physical violence in later adolescence. Neighbourhood gangs are thought to contribute to dangerous school environments. Gangs use the social environment of the school to recruit members and interact with opposing groups, with gang violence carrying over from neighbourhoods into some schools.

School environment

          Recent research has linked the school environment to school violence. Teacher assaults are associated with a higher percentage male faculty, a higher proportion of male students, and a higher proportion of students receiving free or reduced cost lunch (an indicator of poverty). In general, a large male population, higher grade levels, a history of high levels of disciplinary problems in the school, high student to teacher ratios, and an urban location are related to violence in schools.In students, academic performance is inversely related to antisocial conduct. The research by Hirschiand others,cited above in the section on the home environment, is also consistent with the view that lack of attachment to school is associated with increased risk of antisocial conduct.

 

 

causes

1.     Weapons- weapons are something that are easily available in this era to the children and can be accessed by the children in an illegal way. They do purchase such weapons and try to utilize them in the school to get fame and name.

2.     Atmosphere in the home- if a kid is deprived of a good environment at his home place, then there are great chances of him becoming violent. If they see that their parents keep on fighting continuously for no reason, beat each other, then they develop similar attitudes in mind and learn the same.

3.     Anxiety and stress- there are possibilities that an individual may get violent due to anxiety and stress. They are many times, under continuous stress, may be career problems, or studies or any other reason.

4.     Depression- if a kid is under depression, then also there are chances of him getting violent and he may showcase this violence in the school.

5.     Effects of media- this is one of the biggest reason spoiling the kids on a regular basis. A lot of violence is broadcasted in TV shows and cinemas. Kids see such programs and try to imitate the same in their real life. They observe violent scenes in media such as usage of guns and knives to kill the other person and hence, try to practice it in reality.

6.     No counseling- if a child does not get proper counseling, affection and love, then there are higher possibilities of him to become violent.

7.     Effect of the group- the child’s group plays a vital role in molding his behavior. They generally get violent, if someone in the group has got violent. If one of all of his friends is violent, then he learns the same and hence expresses the same in the school.

8.     Lack of guidance or support in difficult times- each one of us go through a difficult time in life. If, at this period, he does not receive proper guidance or care, then the possibilities of getting violent are high. Children cannot solve problems or take decisions on their own and this is quite an irritating task for them.

All the above mentioned reasons are accountable for a violent behavior in the child. Therefore, it is the role of the teachers, parents as well as the schools to consider these factors and take proper care of the child and serve him in times of difficulty to avoid such problems.

Effects of School Violence

         While it is easy to speculate about what the primary causes of school violence are, the effects of school violence are rather simple to see. One of the most damaging effects is the frequency of school shootings across America. Unfortunately, another visible effect is the loss of lives as a result of school violence.

      Another effect of school violence is the shift that it brings to the educational process. Teachers are forced to be on the lookout for troubled students, rather than focusing on teaching alone. This heightened attention to school safety is unfortunately necessary, but it indicates a shifting perspective in American viewpoints of school. In some schools, teens may not be able to get as much of an education because educators need to be focused on keeping teens safe.

         Another obvious effect of school violence is that many students end up feeling fearful of other students or of going to school. When dealing with school bullies, teens teasing one another, and past violent incidents, teens begin to fear what will happen to them everyday. Some parents react swiftly to these type of fears and look into homeschooling their own children.

 

Prevention and intervention

      The goal of prevention and intervention strategies is to stop school violence from occurring. According to the CDC, there are at least four levels at which violence-prevention programs can act: at the level of society in general, the school community, the family, and the individual.

·         Society-level prevention strategies aim to change social and cultural conditions in order to reduce violence regardless of where the violence occurs. Examples include reducing media violence, reshaping social norms, and restructuring educational systems. The strategies are rarely used and difficult to implement.

·         Now Is The Time is a federal initiative developed in 2013 in response to the growing number of gun related school violence incidents. The initiative will provide funding and resources to schools in an effort to reduce gun violence in schools. Funding will be provided for implementation of school interventions and training teachers and staff, programs that will support the mental and physical health of students, conflict resolution programs to reduce further school violence, and restoration of school environment after a violent incident.

·         School-wide strategies are designed to modify the school characteristics that are associated with violence. An avenue of psychological research is the reduction of violence and incivility, particularly the development of interventions at the level of the school. The CDC suggests schools promote classroom management techniques, cooperative learning, and close student supervision. At the elementary school level, the group behavioral intervention known as the Good Behavior Game helps reduce classroom disruption and promotes prosocial classroom interactions. There is some evidence that the Second Step curriculum, which is concerned with promoting impulse control and empathy among second and third graders, produces reductions in physically aggressive behavior.Other school-wide strategies are aimed at reducing or eliminating bullying and organizing the local police to better combat gang violence.

·         The implementation of school-wide early-warning systems, the school equivalent of a DEW Line-like surveillance operation designed to "prevent the worst cases of school violence," has been problematic. Recent developments in early threat assessment, however, show promise. Violence-prevention efforts can also be usefully directed at developing anti-bullying programs, helping teachers with classroom-management strategies, applying behavioral strategies such as the Good Behavior Game, implementing curricular innovations such as the Second Step syllabus, developing programs to strengthen families (see below), and implementing programs aimed at enhancing the social and academic skills of at-risk students (see below).

·         Teachers are the professional group who works directly where school bullying takes place and who spends the most time with both bullies, victims and bystanders. Thus, whether and how teachers intervene in the case of bullying is of great importance. Research has shown that teachers prefer authority-based interventions towards bullies but seem to neglect to support the victims. Unfortunately, most teacher training curricula do not include preventive and interventive skills regarding school violence.

·         Some intervention programs are aimed at improving family relationships.There is some evidence that such intervention strategies have modest effects on the behavior of children in the short and long term. Patterson's home intervention program involving mothers has been shown to reduce aggressive conduct in children. An important question concerns the extent to which the influence of the program carries over into the child's conduct in school.

·         Some prevention and intervention programs focus on individual-level strategies. These programs are aimed at students who exhibit aggression and violent behaviors or are at risk for engaging in such behaviors. Some programs include conflict resolution and team problem-solving. Other programs teach students social skills.the Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, while developing and implementing a universal anti-aggression component for all elementary school children, also developed and implemented a separate social-skills and academic tutoring component that targets children who are the most at risk for engaging in aggressive behavior.